SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary">less</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><div class="infobox-caption"><code>less</code> output in an <a href="Xterm" title="Xterm">x-terminal</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">Developer(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Mark Nudelman</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data">1984<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1984</span>)</span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">679<sup id="cite_ref-wikidata-5ceee3d92f809f3fdf390dc253b0ffdb676639f1-v20_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wikidata-5ceee3d92f809f3fdf390dc253b0ffdb676639f1-v20-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 

/ 19 June 2025<span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">19 June 2025</span>)</span></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Repository_(version_control)" title="Repository (version control)">Repository</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/gwsw/less">github<wbr>.com<wbr>/gwsw<wbr>/less</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Written in</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Cross-platform" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-platform">Cross-platform</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_categories#Categorization_approaches" title="Software categories">Type</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="System_utility" class="mw-redirect" title="System utility">System utility</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Multi-licensing" title="Multi-licensing">Dual-licensed</a> under <a href="GNU_Project" title="GNU Project">GNU</a> <a href="GNU_General_Public_License#Version_3" title="GNU General Public License">GPLv3</a> and a custom <a href="BSD_licenses#2-clause" title="BSD licenses">BSD-style</a> license</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.greenwoodsoftware.com/less/">www<wbr>.greenwoodsoftware<wbr>.com<wbr>/less<wbr>/</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b><code>less</code></b> is a <a href="Terminal_pager" title="Terminal pager">terminal pager</a> <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> on <a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>, <a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a>, and <a href="Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> systems used to view (but not change) the contents of a <a href="Text_file" title="Text file">text file</a> one screen at a time. It is similar to <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">

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</style><span class="monospaced"><a href="More_(command)" title="More (command)">more</a></span>, but has the extended capability of allowing both forward and backward navigation through the file. Unlike most Unix text editors/viewers, <span class="monospaced">less</span> does not need to read the entire file before starting, allowing for immediate viewing regardless of file size.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Mark Nudelman initially wrote <code>less</code> during 1983–85, in the need of a version of <code><a href="More_(command)" title="More (command)">more</a></code> able to do backward scrolling of the displayed text. The name came from the joke of doing "backwards more." Originally, <code>less</code> was developed for Unix, but it has been ported to a number of other operating systems, including <a href="MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a>, <a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>, <a href="OS/2" title="OS/2">OS/2</a>, and <a href="OS-9" title="OS-9">OS-9</a>, as well as <a href="Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> systems such as <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is still maintained today by Nudelman.

</p><p>To help remember the difference between <code>less</code> and <code>more</code>, a common joke is to say, "<span class="monospaced">less > more</span>," implying that <code>less</code> has greater functionality than <span class="monospaced">more</span>. A similar saying is that "<code>less</code> is <code>more</code>, more or less".

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2></div>

<p><span class="monospaced">less</span> can be invoked with options to change its behaviour, for example, the number of lines to display on the screen. A few options vary depending on the operating system. While <span class="monospaced">less</span> is displaying the file, various commands can be used to navigate through the file. These commands are based on those used by both <span class="monospaced">more</span> and <span class="monospaced"><a href="Vi_(text_editor)" title="Vi (text editor)">vi</a></span>. It is also possible to search for character patterns in the file.

</p><p>By default, <span class="monospaced">less</span> displays the contents of the file to the <a href="Standard_output" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard output">standard output</a> (one screen at a time). If the file name argument is omitted, it displays the contents from <a href="Standard_input" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard input">standard input</a> (usually the output of another command through a <a href="Pipeline_(Unix)" title="Pipeline (Unix)">pipe</a>). If the output is redirected to anything other than a <a href="Computer_terminal" title="Computer terminal">terminal</a>, for example a pipe to another command, <span class="monospaced">less</span> behaves like <span class="monospaced"><a href="Cat_(Unix)" title="Cat (Unix)">cat</a></span>.

</p><p>The "lesspipe" extension can automatically determine file types such as <a href="PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a>, multimedia, and <a href="Compressed_archive" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressed archive">compressed archives</a>, and automatically determines which program to launch display the file's information with, such as text from a PDF file, metadata of photos, lists of files in a compressed archive, and content of a single file in a compressed archive.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The command-<a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> is:

</p>

<pre>less [options] [file_name]...

</pre>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frequently_used_options">Frequently used options</h3></div>

<ul><li><code>-g</code>: Highlight just the current match of any searched string.</li>

<li><code>-i</code>: Search case-insensitively.</li>

<li><code>-m</code>: Show more detailed prompt, including file position.</li>

<li><code>-N</code>: Show line numbers (useful for viewing <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>).</li>

<li><code>-x3</code>: Set tabstops (the number of columns per hard tab character) to the specified number (3, in this example) (useful for viewing <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a>).</li>

<li><code>-S</code>: Disable line wrapping ("chop long lines"). Long lines can be seen by side-scrolling.</li>

<li><code>-X</code>: Leave file contents on screen when less exits.</li>

<li><code>--follow-name</code>: Follow mode, for log files that get replaced while being viewed.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frequently_used_commands">Frequently used commands</h3></div>

<th>Key

</th>

<th>Command

</th></tr>

<tr>

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</style><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">Space bar</kbd>

</th>

<td>Next Page

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Next half Page

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Previous Page

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Previous half Page

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Edit Content

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">j</kbd> <span style="font-weight: normal;">or</span> <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">↵ Enter</kbd>

</th>

<td>Next Line

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Previous Line

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Top of file

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>End of file

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Follow Mode (for expanding logs or pipes). Interrupt (or from v581 <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">Ctrl</kbd>+<kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">X</kbd><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to abort.

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>First Line

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Last Line

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Forward Search for <code><span class="nowrap">⟨text⟩</span></code>. Text is interpreted as a <a href="Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regex</a>.

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Backward Search like <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">/</kbd>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td><a href="Grep" title="Grep">grep</a> like filter

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Next Search Match

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Previous Search Match

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Turn off Match Highlighting (see <code>-g</code> command line option)

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Toggle option <code><span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span></code>, e.g., <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">-</kbd><kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">i</kbd> toggles option to match case in searches

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>File information

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Next file

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Previous file

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Help. This is presented with <code>less</code>, <kbd class="keyboard-key nowrap">q</kbd> to quit.

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td>Quit

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-bash mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>less<span class="w"> </span>-M<span class="w"> </span>readme.txt<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># Read "readme.txt"</span>

less<span class="w"> </span>+F<span class="w"> </span>/var/log/mail.log<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># Follow mode for log</span>

file<span class="w"> </span>*<span class="w"> </span><span class="p">|</span><span class="w"> </span>less<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># Easier file analysis</span>

less<span class="w"> </span>-I<span class="w"> </span>-p<span class="w"> </span>void<span class="w"> </span>*.c<span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># Case insensitive search for "void" in all .c files</span>

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Memory_considerations">Memory considerations</h2></div>

<p>The <code>--buffers=n</code> and <code>--auto-buffers</code> options control how much memory less may use to buffer inputs. This is most relevant when less is directly accessing a named file that is modified or deleted while less is still running, and when less is receiving data from a pipe and the data can not be randomly accessed or regenerated. On the other hand, unlimited buffering means that less will request as much memory as it is fed data, which could drive the system into using virtual memory and swapping a lot of data between RAM and disks (dramatically slowing system performance for most applications on the host), or even further into memory exhaustion where any application on the host requesting memory may have that request denied, or may crash when attempting to access memory that the OS promised but can't find when the application actually attempts to use it and a page-fault occurs.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="More_(command)" title="More (command)">more (command)</a></li>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230207045624/https://groups.google.com/g/net.sources/c/GikfOBWCl0s/m/agdI4hW2ix8J">"less, a paginator"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://groups.google.com/d/msg/net.sources/GikfOBWCl0s/agdI4hW2ix8J">the original</a> on February 7, 2023.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-wikidata-5ceee3d92f809f3fdf390dc253b0ffdb676639f1-v20-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wikidata-5ceee3d92f809f3fdf390dc253b0ffdb676639f1-v20_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mail-archive.com/less-announce@greenwoodsoftware.com/msg00077.html">"[less-announce] less-679 released for general use"</a>. 19 June 2025<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 June</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://manpages.debian.org/bullseye/less/lesspipe.1.en.html">"lesspipe(1) — less — Debian bullseye — Debian Manpages"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://man.archlinux.org/man/lesspipe.1">"lesspipe(1) — Arch manual pages"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenwoodsoftware.com/less/news.581.html">"Less version 581"</a>. Greenwood Software. 7 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=less&apropos=0&sektion=0&arch=default&format=html">Manual page on freebsd.org</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man1/less.1.html">Manual page on man7.org</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://directory.fsf.org/wiki/Less">Entry in Free Software Directory</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Unix_command-line_interface_programs_and_shell_builtins541" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command-line interface</a> programs and <a href="Shell_builtin" title="Shell builtin">shell builtins</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">File system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Chattr" title="Chattr">chattr</a></li>

<li><a href="Chmod" title="Chmod">chmod</a></li>

<li><a href="Chown" title="Chown">chown</a></li>

<li><a href="Chgrp" title="Chgrp">chgrp</a></li>

<li><a href="Cksum" title="Cksum">cksum</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuser_(Unix)" title="Fuser (Unix)">fuser</a></li>

<li><a href="Mkdir" title="Mkdir">mkdir</a></li>

<li><a href="Rmdir" title="Rmdir">rmdir</a></li>

<li><a href="Split_(Unix)" title="Split (Unix)">split</a></li>

<li><a href="Touch_(command)" title="Touch (command)">touch</a></li>

<li><a href="Umask" title="Umask">umask</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cron" title="Cron">crontab</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">User environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Logname" title="Logname">logname</a></li>

<li><a href="Uname" title="Uname">uname</a></li>

<li><a href="Write_(Unix)" title="Write (Unix)">write</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Text processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Basename" title="Basename">basename</a></li>

<li><a href="Csplit" title="Csplit">csplit</a></li>

<li><a href="Dirname" title="Dirname">dirname</a></li>

<li><a href="Iconv" title="Iconv">iconv</a></li>

<li><a href="Paste_(Unix)" title="Paste (Unix)">paste</a></li>

<li><a href="Patch_(Unix)" title="Patch (Unix)">patch</a></li>

<li><a href="Printf_(Unix)" title="Printf (Unix)">printf</a></li>

<li><a href="Strings_(Unix)" title="Strings (Unix)">strings</a></li>

<li><a href="Troff" title="Troff">troff</a></li>

<li><a href="Xargs" title="Xargs">xargs</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Shell_builtin" title="Shell builtin">Shell builtins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alias_(command)" title="Alias (command)">alias</a></li>

<li><a href="Environment_variable#unset_command" title="Environment variable">unset</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Searching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Ctags" title="Ctags">ctags</a></li>

<li><a href="Strip_(Unix)" title="Strip (Unix)">strip</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Sleep_(command)" title="Sleep (command)">sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="True_and_false_(commands)" title="True and false (commands)">true and false</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Categories</b>

<ul><li>Standard Unix programs</li>

<li>Unix SUS2008 utilities</li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-05" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Less_(Unix)&oldid=1288841616">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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